Content
- 1 Forms 1.1 Fraternal polyandry
- 1.2 Multiple paternity
- 1.3 Biandria
- 1.4 Polygynandry
- 2.1 Asia
- 3.1 Hinduism
Forms
Fraternal polyandry
Fraternal polyandry (Greek φρατρία - brotherhood) is a form of polyandry in which the husbands of one woman are brothers to each other. It was common and is still occasionally found in central Tibet, Nepal and northern India,[9] where it was socially accepted.[5][10] In southern India, fraternal polyandry is practiced by the Toda tribe, but monogamy now prevails among them.[11] In modern Indian society, polyandrous marriages are observed in rural communities in the Malwa region. Punjab, which appears to be practiced there for the same purpose - to avoid fragmentation of farmers' land.[12]
In contrast to the European rules of primogeniture and primogeniture, which forced the younger sons of landowners to leave their native places and look for other occupations, fraternal polyandry allows not only to avoid fragmentation of estates during inheritance, but also makes it possible for brothers to stay and farm together. And in the next generation, their sons, born from a common wife, will also be able to marry one woman together and inherit the same plot of land, which will not be divided and will be provided with a sufficient amount of male labor [13]. But with a large number of brothers, this life strategy is less successful[14].
In the families of aristocrats and large landowners, polyandry can serve to preserve the titles and lands of the family. In the event of a long or frequent absence of one of the brothers, others can replace him, and the farm will not fall into decay without a responsible owner. In Tibet, polyandry was especially common among the spiritual elite of the Sakya school.
A prerequisite for polyandry may also be extreme gender inequality. For example, selective abortions in India lead to a shortage of women and to the “socialization” of the wife by several men (most often relatives)[15].
In polygynous marriages, an analogue of fraternal polyandry is sororate - the marriage of one man with several siblings or cousins.
Multiple paternity
Anthropologist Stephen Beckerman notes that in at least 20 tribal societies it is considered normal or even desirable for a child to have more than one father. This is called multiple (shared, partial, joint) paternity.[16] Often (but not always) the joint raising of a child by several fathers is associated with a polyandrous marriage of these men with the child's mother.[17]
One of the most famous examples of partial paternity is the “virgin birth” of all children, which is believed by some Trobriand Islanders. These people are aware of the need for sexual intercourse to give birth to a child, but at the same time they believe that a man has no influence on the child’s physique and personal qualities, which depend only on the mother. Therefore, they adopt inheritance exclusively through the maternal line (matrilineality), the child always belongs only to the mother’s clan. The mother's husbands who do not live in the same house with her are not considered the fathers of the child, but the mother's brothers who live with her are considered.
Biandria
Biandry is a type of polyandry
(from Latin bis - twice, and other Greek ἀνήρ - husband) - a form of marriage in which a woman has two husbands at the same time[18].
Polygynandry
In the Indian Himalayas, a combination of polyandry and polygyny occurs: when two or more men are married to two or more of the same women at the same time. This form of group marriage is called polygynandry. Polygynandry also avoids land fragmentation, diversifies local economic activity, and reduces population growth[19].
What is polyandry?
What is polyandry? Initially, a woman marries one chosen one, and when his brothers reach adulthood, they also marry her and live together in the same house. Some women even help raise their husbands until they are mature enough to marry.
The eldest brother usually dominates in terms of power, that is, in running the household, but they all share work and act as sexual partners. Tibetan men and women do not find this the least bit unusual, repulsive or scandalous, and it is considered normal for a wife to treat all husbands equally.
This is not my dog: owners do not recognize their pets after returning from the street
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A simple but roomy apron to help the gardener: I sewed several pieces at once
Distribution area
Polyandry occurred and occurs in relatively small areas of distribution, scattered across different parts of the world.
Asia
The earliest known evidence of polyandry is the edict of Uruinimgina, who ruled the Sumerian city-state of Lagash around 2319-2311. BC, about the abolition of biandric marriages[20] and the prohibition of polyandry under the threat of stoning a woman who has several husbands if this is recorded.[21]
In some cantons of ancient Media, a woman was allowed to have several (but not more than four) husbands at the same time.[22] In the Hephthalite State, fraternal polyandry was legalized and generally accepted. A married woman wore a hat with horns according to the number of spouses. If the husbands of one woman were not blood brothers, they fraternized with each other before marrying a common spouse.[23][24]
Polyandry has been hypothesized to exist in ancient (pre-Muslim) South Arabia.[25][26] Supposedly, there was a tradition then called Nikah Ijtimah, which allowed polyandry, but with the adoption of Islam by the Arabs, this tradition was condemned and stopped[27].
Polyandry in Tibet (English)Russian. was more common than in any other known society, and may still be practiced today. Nikolai Notovich in his book noted the existence of polyandry in “Little Tibet” - Ladakh.[28] According to a study conducted in 1981 in Muli Tibet Autonomous County, 52% of marriages were monogamous, 32% of cases were fraternal polyandry, and 16% were polygyny in the form of sororate.[29] The PRC authorities, after establishing control over Tibet, outlawed polyandry, and due to the closed nature of this region and China as a whole, there is no reliable information about the number of polyandrous families in Tibet at the present time.[30] In China, polyandry is also found among the Mosuo people in the provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan[31].
In India, Bhutan and northern Nepal, polyandry continues to exist among national and religious minorities. Widely distributed among the Sherpas.[32] In 1914, polyandry was the dominant form of marriage in Bhutan.[33] In modern Bhutan, polyandry is much less common, but is still practiced by the Minaro living in the Merak gewogs. and Sakteng (English) Russian. Dzongkhaga Trashigang.[34]
In India, polyandry is most common in Rajasthan, Ladakh, Zanskar and the Jaunsar-Bawar (Hindi जौनसार बावर) region of Uttarakhand among the Toda tribe[5][30].
Polyandry is or was found among the Nivkhs on Sakhalin[35] and the Eskimos in northern Eurasia.[25]
Africa
There are known cases of polyandry in Nigeria[30], especially in the Irigwe (Rigwe) tribe in the northern regions of this country: women of this tribe traditionally have several spouses, whom they call “in-laws.” Polyandry was common among the Maasai in Kenya and northern Tanzania[31][36]. In the Great Lakes region, polyandry was rare, while polygyny was quite common there.[37]
In August 2013, two men in Kenya signed a contract to marry the same woman with whom they were each having an affair. Kenyan legislation does not strictly prohibit polyandry, but it is not very accepted there at the moment[38].
Europe
Inscription on the tomb of Allia Potestas ( Museo Epigrafico
, Baths of Diocletian, Rome)
According to Julius Caesar, the ancient Britons practiced the socialization of a wife by brothers, and less often by father and son.[39] According to Polybius, polyandry was prevalent among the inhabitants of Laconia.[40][41] There is a famous case in the history of the Roman Empire when a crowd of matrons burst into the Senate and with tears begged for a law allowing a woman to have two husbands.[42] On the tomb of Allia Potestas from ancient Perugia there is an inscription telling how she lived peacefully with two lovers, one of whom immortalized her name in a famous epigraphic eulogy that dates from around the second century AD.[43]
Oceania and island countries
Cases of polyandry were also noted in some Polynesian tribes before European contact,[44] but there they occurred only among women from the upper castes.[45] Among the Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, polyandry was also accepted and practiced until the disappearance of this people[46].
In Sri Lanka, fraternal polyandry is officially permitted under the Kandyan Marriage law. To denote polyandry, they often use the euphemism “eka-ge-kama” (literally translated - “eating in the same house”)[47]. Associated Polyandry is also found in Sri Lanka - a form of marriage that begins as monogamous, but later the number of husbands of the wife increases (sometimes on the initiative of the wife)[48][49].
Polyandry is common among the Kanakas of New Caledonia[50] and the aborigines of the Marquesas Islands.[25][51] Friedrich Ratzel in his 1896 book “History of Mankind” stated that in the New Hebrides polyandry was accepted among widowers and widowers: according to the custom of the locals tribes, two widowers had to live with one widow[52].
North America
Among the indigenous inhabitants of North America, polyandry was found among the Aleuts[25][53] (noted in the 19th century) and the Inuit.[54]
South America
In Brazil, polyandry is found among the Zo'é people living on the banks of the Cuminapanema River in the state of Pará[55]. Among other indigenous peoples of South America, polyandry is noted among the Bororo,[56] fraternal polyandry is accepted in the uncontacted Tupi-Kawahib tribe
),[57] and multiple paternity occurs in about 70% of Amazonian cultures.[58]
Polyandry and religion
Hinduism
Draupadi with her five Pandavas. From left to right:
Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhisthira, Nakula, Sahadeva, Draupadi. Dasavatar Temple (Deogarh village, Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India)
Polyandrous relationships are now frowned upon in most schools of Hinduism.[59] But in the ancient epic sacred to Hindus - the Mahabharata - there is at least one example of polyandry: Draupadi was married to five brothers from the Pandava family. This ancient text expresses a rather neutral attitude towards polyandry, which is accepted as Draupadi's way of life[60]. In the same epic, Yudhishthira, answering Kunti's questions about polyandry, refers to the Gautam-clan Jatila
), who was married to the seven Saptarishas, and to Praceti, the sister of Hiranyaksha, who was the common wife of ten brothers. As can be understood from this, in Vedic times society was much more accepting of polyandry.[61]
Judaism
There is no mention in the Hebrew biblical texts of any woman being the wife of more than one man at the same time,[62][63] and the biblical definition of adultery clearly states that polyandry is unacceptable.[64][65] There is no polyandry in Jewish traditions and customs.[66][67] In addition, children from any man other than the first husband are considered illegitimate (mamzers), unless the first husband has already divorced the woman or died[68].
Christianity
The vast majority of modern Christian denominations advocate strict monogamy and do not accept any other form of marriage, including polyandry. The New Testament (Rom. 7:2—) strictly prohibits polyandry.
Mormons
Mormon prophets Joseph Smith and Brigham Young set historical records for polygamy. There is a version that they also took women from other husbands, that is, they practiced polygynandry, but this issue remains controversial.[69]
Islam
Although Islam prohibits polyandry for free women, it should be noted that Islamic legal enslavement of married women automatically abolishes their marital unions, allowing male slave owners to have intimate relationships with their female slaves who were married before enslavement.[70][71]
India
Polyandry used to be widespread throughout the country, and matriarchal systems still dominate in some Indian regions, mainly in the former state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Polyandry is mainly found in Asian countries. This area is located in the mountains. There are few fertile areas on the high plateau, so polyandry was an excellent way to avoid the fragmentation of the land.
According to tradition, the eldest brother married first in the family, his wife automatically became the wife of the other brothers, and the land was concentrated in the hands of the eldest son. The woman had the right to refuse, and then the brothers had to shave to become monks. If she agreed, then the brothers took turns, one week at a time, sharing marital responsibilities.
Rajo Verma and her husbands Now this tradition is considered outdated, but if a woman wants to have several husbands, the law will not interfere. A famous example is Rajjo Verma. In 2013, a 21-year-old girl married five brothers, and soon she had a child, whose father even Rajo cannot accurately name.
